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Revista Latina de Comunicación Social 64 - 2009 |
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Edita: LAboratorio de Tecnologías de la Información y
Nuevos Análisis de Comunicación Social |
Research – How to cite this article – referees' reports – agenda
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Commons Social advertising in the NGOs of Cordoba (Argentina). Message construction profiles Isidoro Arroyo Almaraz, PH. D. [C.V.] Senior Lecturer at the Department of Communication Sciences I. Rey Juan Carlos University, URJC, Spain - isidoro.arroyo@urjc.es Miguel Baños González, Ph. D. [C.V.] Senior Lecturer at the Department of Communication Sciences II. Rey Juan Carlos University, URJC, Spain - miguel.banos@urjc.es Teresa C. Rodríguez García, Ph. D. [C.V.] Visiting Professor at the Department of Communication Sciences II. Rey Juan Carlos University, URJC, Spain - teresa.rodriguez@urjc.es Abstract: NGOs are significantly increasing their presence in the city of Cordoba (Argentina) where they are forming a larger sector everyday. Thorough the years, these organizations have committed themselves to strengthen the democratic system and improve civil rights in the community. To achieve this goal, they have relied on social advertising as one of their key resources. Social advertising has been instrumental in establishing their visibility as well as in improving their credibility and reputation for transparency. It has also helped them raise funds, recruit new volunteers, raise awareness of social issues and educate people on the values of solidarity. Relaying on content analysis as the primary methodology, this research presents a study about the communication efforts carried out by the NGO sector in the city of Cordoba. The research points out that NGOs do not always optimize their available resources when building their messages, despite their efforts to communicate with a wide ranging audience through different channels. Keywords: Social advertising; advertising creativity; NGO; content analysis; Córdoba (Argentina). Summary: 1. Introduction. 2. Methodological Design and Procedures. 3. Results: message construction profiles. 4. Conclusions. 5. Bibliography. Abstract’s translation by Joseph Pistrui (IE Business School) and
1. Introduction This paper examines the formal, textual, iconic and visual aspects of the ads produced by the NGOs in the city of Cordoba (Argentina); the textual and iconic contents and the general signification of the message based in its denotative and connotative aspects, as well as the creativity, the treatments, calls to action, benefits to be obtained, and the values conveyed by the message. The NGOs in Cordoba have for a long time assumed the challenge of providing solutions to the public; sometimes is about raising awareness, like for example the campaign about the prevention of breast cancer developed by the Association LALCEC, other times is about the fostering of education, like the campaign of Acas (Association of Argentinean services clubs) for the construction and maintenance of schools, and most of the time, is about looking for solutions to the problems of excluded groups like, for example, the campaigns of the NGO named “A roof for my country” which tackles indifference towards poverty. These campaigns have mostly been channelled via printed ads and in general all types of graphic pieces (Figures 1 and 2), as well as some outdoor advertising because they highlight the social dimension of advertising and their commitment to public service (Pacheco, 1998, 2).
Figure 1. Social advertising of the Association LALCEC and of the campaign “A roof for my Country” of the Volunteers Area.
Figure 2. Social advertising of Acas, the Association of Argentinean Services Clubs. All these organizations have taken as their own the six objectives traditionally applied to advertising for NGOs: to publicize the organization, enhance its image of credibility and transparency, raise funds and resources, recruit new volunteers and retain old ones, raise awareness about social causes and finally educate to change uncharitable attitudes and reinforce solidarity (Ortega, 1997; Martínez J.L: 2009). NGOs have formed two broad groups, which are defined by the importance that any of these objectives has had in their communication campaigns. Thus there are instrumental communications, which have focused on raising funds and resources, and expressive communications, which are focused on raising awareness and educating people about social issues. Thus, there are two quite distinct areas in the NGO social advertising in Cordoba: the uptake of resources, without which the projects are not viable; and the world of solidarity and awareness towards social problems. According to Ortega, Minguez and Gil [cited in Juan Luis Martínez (1999 and Rocío Chamizo (2003)] solidarity contemplates an itinerary that covers the acknowledgement of the problem, the knowledge of its causes, the recognition of human dignity as a source of law, awareness of duty and obligation to respond collectively to the problem, the assumption of solidarity as a personal commitment and finally the action of solidarity as individual and/or collectively response to the problem. Social advertising, thus, works in every stage of this journey through their formal aspects and content of the creativity in the messages, where the texts and fundamentally the images acquire a special force. 1.1. General Purpose of the research Analyzing the messages made by any advertiser is critical to improve the communications they establish with their audiences. In the case of social marketing, this need is even more important because “in most cases, they are organizations with very limited resources and with difficulties to produce campaigns with the quality levels that would be necessary to achieve their objectives” (Baños and Rodríguez, 2009: 3). This research takes as formal object the commercial messages designed by NGOs in the city of Cordoba (Argentina). Particularly, the study focuses on messages expressed in graphic media because the presence of such organizations in audiovisual media is merely testimonial and made in formats more characteristic of corporative than marketing communications. Regarding the new media, it is true that currently there are opinions highlighting that the core of global communication is represented by the “global digital communication”, which involves everyday and common tools like the Internet and wireless communications (Castells, 2009). However, these formulas of communication have not reached yet the desirable level in the sociocultural scene in which the messages, the subject matter of our study, are generated and operate. The final goal of this study is that its results –the definition of the profile of the advertising message– form a stable and reliable basis for further research into the fundamental objective of establishing the relationship between message construction and effectiveness. Based on the knowledge of the operational elements of the ad, and taking as research subjects the NGOs and their publics, this study tries to determine the influence of the constructive factors of graphical advertising in the effectiveness of the communication campaigns of the NGOs to convince their publics to participate in their activities, in two levels:
1.2. State of the research In Argentina the NGOs, called Civil Society Organizations (OSCs, according to the initials in Spanish), resurfaced in the 1980s as new forms of protest against the economic, political and social situation of the country. Although democracy was consolidated after 1989, it has not responded with a return towards a welfare state because of, among other factors, the growing fiscal deficit of the country. In consequence, the so-called social projects like environmental protection, public health, the tackling of poverty, among others, have been left permanently out of the government’s agenda. The result has been the emergence of new social movements that have been stuck in the permanent rivalry between the state and the NGOs, which have more frequently focused on competition rather than cooperation. In general we can consider that two advertising models have been created in both the developed countries as well as in Argentina: state advertising and social advertising. Both models have been created as expression of the best solution to social problems. On the one hand, the state, as announcer, establish communication with its citizens through institutional advertising (figure 3): campaigns about new diseases (currently the influenza A), drug prevention, discouragement of drunk driving, raising awareness about the mandatory nature of tax contributions, etc. As Cortes (2008: 2) points out, “the state advertising can be used in favour of the improvement of society and its relations as a whole”.
Figure 3. The image on the left shows the outdoor advertising of the campaign warning about the dangers of drunk driving. The image on the right shows the poster of the Women’s Provincial Council as a support centre against sexual violence. Cordoba (Argentina). The third sector has occupied the spaces left by the permanent crisis of the welfare state faced with the absence of solutions to social problems by the government, and serves to download the social responsibility in other agents or even on citizens, and is offered as an alternative to solve such problems or as a promise to make us believe that most social causes can be solved. (Alvarado and de Andres, 2009). The movement of the third sector acts as a social conscience and is positioned within the democratic values of political pluralism, cultural diversity, and the pursuit of citizen commitment to public issues. Therefore we see the existence of a large NGO sector which is mostly committed to the strengthening of the democratic system and with the improvement of the rights of citizens, and uses social marketing to gain public visibility and reputation using a communication formula that has already started to feel, at least in our context, the inconveniences of media saturation, which becomes another obstacle when trying to circulate a differentiated, notorious and motivating message. Therefore, social advertising constantly searches for creative excellence levels which is awarded in the Advertising Festivals that consider the social advertising under different denominations: service campaigns and campaigns for the public good (FIAP), non-profit public service campaigns (El Sol); special category of social responsibility (Premios Eficacia [Effectiveness Awards]) or non-commercial advertising (CdC awards). A recent example can be found in the campaign by the Prodis Foundation, directed by Rafa Antón, currently the executive creative director of Vitrubio Leo Burnett. The Prodis Foundation suffered from the lack of sufficient resources to publicize their work. In March 2007, as part of an initiative by the Foundation, Antena 3 offered Prodis some 20-seconds promotional spots on the channel to broadcast its cause: Teaching Spanish people what children and young people with intellectual disabilities are capable of by allowing them disabled children to create their own spot, and circulating videos describing the experience from the viewpoint of the agency. This experience generated great repercussions on the media, like institutional support, dissemination of the message, monetary donations, and favoured the integration of children and youth with intellectual disabilities into society. Finally it became one of the most award-wining social advertising campaigns in history, receiving in his editions of 2008, among other prizes: A Sol award in the Ibero-American Festival of Social Advertising, Gold awards in the Club de Creativos (Creatives Club), Premios Eficacia (Effectiveness Awards), and the FIAP. There are plenty of other examples of relations between advertising agencies and NGOs, which have achieved great results in the efficacy in notoriety and visibility of campaigns. Some of these examples are: the campaigns “None of your business” and “Save Safiya” created by the agency Contrapunto for Amnesty International; the campaign “An unfair world challenges you” created by Saatchi & Saatchi for Manos Unidas (United Hands); the campaign “Save the Amazon” by the agency Tiempo BBDO for Greenpeace; the “Rwanda-Burundi” campaign created by the agency McCann Erickson for the NGO Doctors Without Borders; and recently the campaign “No Hunter” designed by Schakelton for the NGO Action Against Hunger (ACF International) which won the silver award in the special category of internationality of the Eficacia 09 awards celebrated in October 2009. 1.3. Social advertising messages in review: specific objectives of the study As stated earlier our overall research objective is to analyse in depth the communications created by NGOs established in Cordoba, Argentina, in order to define, in a second phase of study, a model of integrated analysis with predictive character that allows these NGOs to improve the effectiveness of their communication campaigns. Based on this we have established a group of specific objectives directly focused on the analysis of these messages:
1.4. Research hypothesis Hypothesis 1. The marketing communications carried out by the various NGOs operating in the city of Cordoba (Argentina) do not show significant differences among themselves in their formal and physical variables. Hypothesis 2. The marketing communications carried out by the various NGOs operating in the city of Cordoba (Argentina) do not show significant differences among themselves in their content variables. Hypothesis 3. The marketing communications carried out by the various NGOs operating in the city of Cordoba (Argentina) show low levels of creativity, measured using indicators of originality, suitability, coherence, aesthetics, design and opacity. Hypothesis 4. Polysemy, connotation and rhetoric (as indicators of signification) correlate positively and significantly with the indicators of the level of creativity. Hypothesis 5. The treatments (or genre) of the content used in messages correlate negatively with the factors of creativity.
2. Methodological Design and Procedures The main methodological tool used in this study is content analysis, a technique validated as an accurate and effective research tool in the field of communication sciences. Fundamentally, a content analysis is defined as “a research technique designed to formulate, based on certain data, reproducible and valid inferences that can be applied to their context” (Krippendorff, 1997: 28). Content analysis applied to communication is understood as the group of analysis and interpretation processes applied to a set of messages generated in certain processes of communication that can be recorded. The analytical procedure involves the use of quantitative and/or qualitative measurement techniques (the former of statistical nature, based on unit counts, and the latter of logical character and based on the combination of categories). This type of analysis is projected as a tool and a research technique that deploys a method of data processing and is defined as a systematic and objective instrument, applicable to the analysis of the characteristics of a message to guarantees its validity and reliability. 2.1. Object of study and sample selection Our universe of study is formed by all graphic communications carried out by NGOs in the city of Cordoba. These communications are integrated into what is known as social marketing; as well as commercial advertising, which is integrated into the marketing plans of commercial organizations. The communications that make up our universe of study as part of the marketing techniques and tools used in “projects directed to the sale of certain ideas whose final goal is to improve the quality of life of certain social groups, the development of society, as a whole, the transmission of basic attitudes of coexistence, and the sensibilization of the citizens towards certain causes” (Barranco Saiz, 2005, p. 29). The aim is to obtain resources that will be focused on various charitable causes that require strategic planning to achieve maximum efficiency. In the same line of thought, Gerard Hastings (2007) states that marketing can help non-commercial areas, and just like it can influence our behaviour as consumers, it can, with the same tools, influence our social behaviour through social marketing. Furthermore, social marketing has advantages over the marketing of the private sector in gaining public support because, as Andreasen (2006) notes, the commercial marketing is designed to make the corporation larger and more profitable and to make its shareholders happier, while the goal of the social sector is to improve the lives of individuals or society in general. One of the communication formulas most commonly used in this type of marketing is the social advertising aimed to support causes of social concern but using as a vehicle the advertising media. More specifically, among the different entities that can implement social campaigns (like non governmental organizations, or public administrations, etc.), this research is limited to the first category and focuses on those communication tools integrated within the social marketing undertaken by NGOs operating in Cordoba (Argentina). Given the variety of organizations and communication tools that fall into our universe of study, we have established a purposed-built sample of analysis based on the definition of a set of criteria aimed to generate a coherent, relevant and viable body of NGOs and their graphic productions. The criteria that NGOs must meet can be summarized as follows:
Finally, based on the previous criteria we selected the following group of NGOs:
2.2. Units of analysis and variables Based on this selection, the sample used consisted of 60 messages made by different NGOs in Cordoba, which met the criteria previously listed. All the messages were developed by NGOs in Cordoba, were designed for graphics media and were available in paper, meet the time criterion, and represented the diversity of activities carried out by NGOs in the Argentinean city. The effectiveness of content analysis lies in the establishment of a number of variables around the object of study, whose exploration and measurement produce results that allow an exhaustive description of the phenomenon in question. This investigation is based on the analysis of three types of variables: formal, of content, and of signification, which are interdependent in all types of messages and that, in the case of marketing communication, are crucial to achieve the communication objectives set in the strategy. Formal variables are understood as those related to the physical aspects or to the form of the elements that compose the message to be analyzed. Sánchez Franco defines them as the physical variables of the ad which denotative properties. He also defines them as the “dimensions of formal character that give external (perceptible) and objective appearance to the commercial message, creating its structure” (1999, 144). Moreover, Naccarato and Neuendorf (1998) consider that these variables are linked to the formal characteristics of the medium. Regarding this type of variables we analyze the written elements characteristic of a commercial ad as well as the icons present on the sample of messages. By written elements we refer to the heading, subheading, body text, claim, etc., and among each of these elements we observe the different resources used to achieve the objectives: the presence or absence of the element, level of relevance, position, font used (using classification DIN 16518). This analysis was aimed to establish the elements used in the sample of messages to later find correlations to other variables of content and meaning. In regard to the iconic aspects, each and every visual element was analyzed by defining: type of visual element, position, chromaticism, format, type and angle of the shot. Each one of these variables communicates something to the receiver and our aim is to analyze which iconic elements are used in these messages and with which features. Among the formal variables is also included the isologotype (understood as the combination, defined and regulated, of the logo and the symbol) which defines the visual identity of the producer of the ad. Finally, we analyzed the structure of the message or the type of construction to see how information is distributed, considering that this variable is key to define the visual scan the receptor will undertake over the contents present in the graphic text. Content variables are the second type analyzed in our research. They have to do with the information conveyed in the ad. For Sánchez Franco these variables are the “elements of the advertisement in close connection with the informative and locomotive function of the publicity” (1999, 144). For Naccarato and Neudendorf (1998) these variables are not linked to the formal characteristics of the medium reason why they can survive independently of the characteristics of the medium, which does not happen with the formal variables since they do not stand the transference to media of different modalities. At this point, we analyzed the content of written and iconic elements at both the denotative (descriptive analysis of the message) and connotative (subjective values where meaning is suggested and where there is no guarantee that the decoding occurs as the sender because it involves a plurality of meanings and dependence on context) levels. The analysis also observes the type of call to action (economic contribution, contribution in kind - clothing, food, books-, volunteering, request of information, awareness raising, etc.), the interaction formula used (coupons, free or pay telephone line, mail, email, website, bank account, or a combination of various), the benefits for the receiver, and the values conveyed in the message (family, education, friendship, solidarity, etc.). Finally, the variables of signification are understood as those aspects characteristic of the construction of the message, which participate in both the formal and content variables and affect the process of signification. In this section we analyze the degrees of signification of the message as a whole (degree of rhetoricalization, coherence, polysemy, etc.), the level of creativity (using a number of criteria characteristic of the evaluation of creativity: the originality of message, suitability of message to the communication problem raised, message coherence, aesthetics, design and opacity), and the genre or treatment used to shape the content (humour, demonstration, testimonial, comparison, problem-solving, etc.) As a supporting element, the beginning of the analysis offers the white paper to facilitate the identification of each message and provide relevant information on the format, the medium in which the message appears, its authorship, etc. 2.3. Measuring procedures for variables After having established the corpus of study and the units of analysis, and defined the variables, now we offer a protocol analysis for the collection of data, which allows the obtaining of accurate measurement of the values of all the variables previously described. This protocol analysis for the NGOs’ commercial messages covers through a number of questions all the formal, content and signification variables defined above, so that a panel of judges can make an evaluation of each of the variables in all the messages sampled. In the development of this test we constructed a code-book, which compiles all the variables to be analyzed, so that the test results can be translated into numerical indicators than can be statistically analysed. We included dichotomous variable (admitting two possible values), polytomous (can acquire three or more values) and variables of ordinal scale (each value shows an order relation). 2.3.1. Judges To carry out the evaluation of the formal and content variables we recurred, as is often done in research on advertising, to a group of judges who are expert in marketing communication. Example of this type of the research conducted recently in the field advertising creativity is Arroyo’s 2006 study about the receptors’ perceived creativity and vividness of image, and the investigation conducted by Sternberg and Lubart (1997), who asked 48 individuals to produce a television ad for two different products, which was evaluated by 15 judges using a numerical scale from one to seven. The use of judges is aimed to prevent the subjectivity characteristic of a single evaluator, who can evaluate only according to his or her own personal opinion, which is something difficult in a field like advertising in which in each work, ad, or campaign is aimed to be a unique and innovative product. In total, six expert judges participated in the evaluation of the sample of NGOs’ messages according to the criteria previously established. Before making the final evaluation, a pre-test was carried out using a small number of messages (not included in the sample) to verify the presence of the variables proposed, to define the encoding of the variables, to detect possible problems with the elements of analysis and seek solutions. After the pre-test, the judges were instructed on their specific task, and on the form to evaluate each of the variables proposed. Finally, they filled out the questionnaires designed for this purpose. 2.3.2. Statistical tools The data collected were coded and introduced into a statistical matrix for their analysis (all the statistical analysis of this study was conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Science a.k.a. SPSS, which is also widely used in communication research). The following step was the exploitation of data and the production of results through different statistical tools. The entire statistical analysis involved the application of descriptive techniques and also tests of signification aimed to demonstrate the existence of an actual relationship between the signification variables and the formal and content aspects of the ads analyzed. Firstly, a descriptive study was undertaken to isolate the formal and content characteristics in messages analyzed. The obtaining of mean measures and frequency distribution allowed in this case the observation of the dominant trends in the construction of the message. Secondly, a bivariate correlation analysis was undertaken to obtain information on the degree of signification and the strength of the relationship between signification aspects of the message (factors of creativity, genre and treatment employed, values and benefits provided, etc.) and formal elements and their content. The correlation strength between variables was expressed by the coefficient (r) of Pearson. Finally the test T was applied on the sample to validate, faced with the contrasting hypotheses, that the difference of means obtained reached the critical value of signification required to reject the null hypothesis of equality of means. 3. Results: Message Construction Profiles The descriptive statistics applied to the data obtained from the protocol analysis offer some results that allow the creation of a profile for the advertising message of NGOs in Cordoba, in the different dimensions addressed by the research: its formal and content aspects, and finally those aspects involved on the construction of the message and their relation to its final signification. 3.1. Trends in the textual aspects of the message An analysis of the distribution of frequency of presence of the different formal elements of textual character (title, subtitle, body text, caption and claim) and their specific qualities (size, position and typography) allows us to see clearly which are the dominant trends in the construction of the messages analyzed (Fig. 4).
The heading is the dominant textual element with a nearly constant presence in all messages (98.3%); it is characterised by the use of a large font and sans-serif typography, and is mainly situated in the upper half of the ad. Subheading and body text are the following elements with a marked presence (75% and 76.7%, respectively). The classical model of relative font sizes if followed (medium size for subheading, and small for body text, and also for its position (slight preference for subheading before the heading and use of most graphic space for the body text). The dominant typography continues to be sans serif (41.7% and 43.3%). Something remarkable is the lack of the claim, present in only 15% of the ads reviewed. This fact can be considered as an extremely negative feature in the messages of the NGOs, since the claim is understood as the phrase which, together with the isologotype, gives a direct and precise meaning to the advertising message, by summarizing the benefit that a product or service promises to the user. So the claim is an element of particular importance because it represents the union of what is displayed or narrated by the sender, in this case the NGOs, through the proximity to the logo. Table 1. Dominant profile in the textual aspect.
As shown in table 1, the resulting trend in the group under analysis is characteristic of a classical composition of written messages regarding the existence of its main components. However, the resources of distribution in the graphic space and font size are no not completely defined. The use of typography also follows the current models in the print media, with the slightly dominance of sans serif over the Roman typography (33.3%, 31.7%, 32.4% in the respective types of text). It is not relevant the use of fancy fonts, like decorative types, or typographical games, which takes away the opportunity to convert the text, especially the heading, in a matter of visual attention. Finally, the analysis shows the high presence of other texts, which is logical to certain extent in the messages of social advertising since they are vehicles for the call to action, which is the main objective of the message. However, there is no particular trend in terms of textual and typographical resources used in them. 3.2. Trends in the visual aspects of the message The illustration, whether photograph, drawing or graphic, is one of the essential elements of printed advertising, and the messages of NGOs are not an exception (Fig. 5).
As it can be seen in table 2, 98% of the messages present a main visual element, with the photograph being the most widely used resource (55%), followed by the drawing (38%); whereas the graphics are almost inexistent (5%). It is also relevant the presence of secondary visual elements in most ads (61.7%), while the use of tertiary visual elements is scarce (20%). In both the main and secondary illustrations the use of colour is favoured over black and white and the squared format is preferred over the vertical horizontal forms. The occupation of the entire graphic space and the use of frontal perspective in the main element are preferred over the high and low and inclined angles. However neither the positioning nor the point of view seem to be an outstanding resource for the second visual item. The few tertiary visual elements have not offered any particular trend. Table 2. Dominant profile in the visual aspect
Once again, great homogeneity can be noted in the use of visual resources, as well as the use of a classical safe model, which is particularly evidenced by the use of a main illustration as the only centre of attention, or the presence of stable forms like the square and the frontal angle, sometimes called "normal". 3.2.1. The presence of the logo As expected, the logo is decanted as another essential component of the messages with a presence observed in 98.3% of them (see Tables 2 and 3). The dominant mode (63.3%) is the isologotype (the name of the NGO or other organization and a graphical element -the symbol- that constitutes the visual identity). Table 3. Dominant profile in the presence of identity
Despite its importance and the graphic space having zones of tested power to capture visual attention, there was no dominant position in the sample (Table 3). The most common positions were lower right: 26.5%, upper half: 22.4%, lower left: 20.4%. The less common positions were right half: 2%, lower half and left half: 8%. Based on the use of the iconic and textual elements and resources, it is not surprising that all the sample of ads tested offer a predisposition to present very normative and homogenous message in terms of their formal aspects, both visual and textual, and with a strong of denotation character and a reduced connotation power (only the value of “joy” was pointed out as connoted meaning through the main element -40%-), which confirms the hypotheses 1 and 2 of our research. 3.2. Trends in the aspects of message content Uniformity is also the dominant factor regarding the perception of the various factors of content considered in the analysis. In this sense, the advertisement of NGOs in Cordoba is presented as an informational vehicle with small dimensions not just in terms of its quest for answers from their public, but also in terms of the beneficial attributes of the message and the values conveyed by it. Summarizing, one could say that the objective of the most ads is to get a response of sensibilization from the public about the problem presented; while the benefits the receptors can obtain through their responses to the demands of the NGO are information and an altruistic feeling. Table 4. Dominant profile in the contents
The perception of the type of action promised in the content of the ads is limited to action on education, the provision of information and the offer of collaboration in social improvement. And similarly, the perception of the values conveyed is significantly centred on education, followed by solidarity and friendship. Although the group of contents transmitted with more clarity shows a strong coherence, the resulting profile is small and simple. Ideas or proposals, like financial contribution, or contribution in kinds (clothing, food, books, etc.), volunteering or the active and direct request of information, are presented as diluted contents and appreciated with indifference and a low level of notability. 3.4. Trends in the factors of signification of the message Under the subject of issues of signification we will address the results obtained on the performance of two specific factors of the construction of the advertising message that directly affect the transmission of the meaning of the message: Indicators of signification, the indicators of creativity, and the treatment or genre. The statistical tools applied on these factors have been firstly an analysis of frequency distribution to observe their relative level of presence and bivariate correlations between indicators of signification, creativity, and genre or treatment, which is a usual operation in advertising research that highlights the interdependent behaviour of these factors on which the effectiveness of the message relies. Firstly, we review the treatment given to the message, i.e. its ascription to a genre that gives the content certain specific and recognizable features (table 5). The sample of messages showed the dominant form of content presentation was the discursive form of “problem-solution” (76.7% of messages), followed distantly by the “demonstration” formula (33.3%). The other genres considered do not have a relevant representation. Table 5. Trends in treatment (genre) of the message
With regard to the factors of signification observed (in table 6), the sample of ads presents a high degree of precision and denotation versus a low degree of complexity. In other words, the ads analysed express their messages in a concrete, and simple manner, with an average degree of originality, low level of polysemy and connotation, and also with a low presence of rhetorical devices. The message is clear but may be little attractive and may even go unnoticed in an area saturated with information products. Table 6. Trends in Indicators of signification
Unsurprisingly, the evaluation of the creativity indicators of the discourse offers even results (table 6). Standing out here are the coherence of the message and the levels of adequacy in the construction of the advertisement in relation to the communication objectives and its design, which are located in a medium level of creative quality. But the low level of originality and opacity lead us to conclude once more that we are dealing with simple and direct messages, but little creative and unable to grab attention. Table 76. Trends in Indicators of creativity
These results confirm the profile that has been outlined so far and that has been confirming our hypothesis. We are facing an advertising sector that produces a very uniform and unremarkable communication. 3.4.1. Relations of creativity and signification As it can be seen, the frequency distribution already indicates that there are few factors of creativity intervening prominently in the elaboration of the messages analysed. Our hypothesis on the creativity of the social advertising of NGOs in Cordoba (Argentina) is based on the consideration that creativity has been signalled as a crucial element for the effectiveness of communication in its relationship with the levels of signification presented in an advertising message, i.e. in its relation with its perceived degree of concreteness, complexity, polysemy, originality, denotation, connotation and rhetoricity. To determine this issue, bivariate correlation analysis has been used as a statistical tool. This tool was applied to the variables of degree of signification and the variables of factors of creativity, using the Pearson coefficient (r). As focus of analysis we have taken as indicators of signification the polysemy, connotation and rhetoricity. These indicators are understood as aspects affecting the meaning of the message and relate more directly to the level of creativity of the message. Thus we can understand that to high levels of polysemy, connotation and rhetoric elaboration of the ad correspond higher levels of creative construction of it. The results show that the correlation coefficients of higher positive sign manifest themselves for the polysemy factor in relation to the factors of originality (r = 0.590), aesthetics (r = 0.520) and elaboration (r = 0.424). The degree of rhetoricalization correlates positively and is statistically significant with these same factors of creativity: originality (r = 0.608), aesthetics (r = 0.518) and elaboration (r = 0.376), having all measures a confidence level of 95%. The degree of connotation of the message correlates positively a to significant level (0.01) only with the level of originality (r = 0.276). There are very few messages from the sample that exhibit these aspects of polysemy, connotation and rhetoricalization. Taking into consideration that the current trend is that the messages tend to show clear factors of concreteness and denotation for which there is no correlation of signification, we can indicate that, effectively, we are dealing with messages of low creative level. Graphic messages produced by the NGOs studied tend to transmit their proposal very simplistically and concretely, and targeting the rational dimension of the receiver but not taking advantage of the emotional dimension, the visual appeal and vivacity that a printed ad with a greater level of creativity can provide. Finally, to confirm this trend of messages being correct but taking the risk of remaining anonymous among a multitude of messages, we applied a bivariate correlation to the treatment or genre factors of the ads in relation to the factors of creativity. The results confirm, to varying degrees, our final hypothesis. There is a statistically significant negative correlation (95% of confidence level) only between the genre of humour and the factors of originality, aesthetics and elaboration. However there is no significant correlation with any of the other genres observed (demonstration, dramatization, presenter, testimonial, comparison and problem-solution). In these factors the correlations established are low or of negative character, but without reaching a level of statistical significance. Since as we have seen the treatments most used in the sample of messages are the “problem-solution” and “demonstration”, the results point out to a correct and appropriate use of these two genres -the most direct and perhaps the less creative by nature- but undoubtedly also point out to a waste of the creative qualities that can be applied to the construction of a richer discourse which can certainly be more appealing to the receiver. 4. Conclusions While we can perceive the effort of the NGOs in the city of Cordoba to communicate with their audiences through different ways, we can also perceive a style of communication that does not fully exploit the possibilities of “relationship” currently offered by the media. Roughly, the analysis shows that the messages are characterized by their homogeneity or uniformity, formality and, to some extent, rigidity, which negatively affects the differentiation of each NGO and the ability to capture the recipients’ attention. In most communications sampled all formal, content, and signification elements are regularly repeated. For example, it happens with the presence, position, typography, and size of textual elements used. Something similar happens with the visual aspects where there is always a visual element, which tends to be a colour photograph with a dominant frontal angulation, and a secondary visual element that tends to be a drawing. And the same can also be said about the signification variables. A detailed analysis shows that the messages analyzed have a massive presence of informative elements, which is reflected on the use of large headings and mostly small body texts, and the frequent use of the entire space of the message. In other words, the written elements stand out because of the amount of information and the lack of persuasive aspects characteristic of marketing communications, especially in the case of advertising. Communication is direct, leaving little room for connoted and suggested concepts. From the presence of the texts to the use of frontal and squared image formats, is clear that the tendency is the direct communication aimed to engage the receiver with rational rather than emotional arguments. This tendency to tell the message in a more rational and straightforward way can also be noted in the predominant use of the problem-solution and demonstration treatments. It is interesting to verify that most messages do not have a claim (the closing sentence that is usually positioned below the brand to create a direct association with it, and thus provide it with a particular personality, a position that facilitates the recalling and increases the relation with its audience), which eliminates, in some way, the possibility of creating a more emotional bond with the receptor and enhance the corporate image, and define the association in each of its messages to improve recognition among the public. It is also important to highlight how NGOs extensively incorporated new technologies, by including the address of its website. However, the strong presence of the website address (71.7%) contrasts with the low incorporation of email (20%), which enables bidirectional communication with their audiences and, therefore, a closer relationship. On the other hand, in relation with the variables of signification, the messages are characterised by their degree of straightforwardness, simplicity and denotation. If we add these points to the creative trends, the result is formally correct messages that do not stand out, which makes difficult their effectiveness in a very saturated environment. 4.1. Discussion This article started by highlighting a new phenomenon in our society: there is a new generation of young people that has been mostly formed in the digital environment, they are “digital natives” who have a very close relationship with ICT and have seen the social networks as their preferred way to relate with the world (García and Gértrudix, 2009). Young people are one of the most interesting segments of the population for NGOs, and thus these organizations should approach them through the use of tools use by the youth: social networks, mobile technologies, Internet, etc. This need has been noticed by commercial brands and the “social networks are exciting new channels the brands want to use to reactivate its degraded branding” (Campos Freire, 2008, 292). In an environment so saturated with messages and NGOs, creativity increasingly becomes more necessary to be differentiated and to reach audiences more effectively. As noted by Kliksberg (2009), Latin America has more than one million NGOs and is witnessing an increase of citizen participation to face the serious social situations: 36% of the population living in poverty, 16% of children suffering chronic malnutrition, 25% of young people out of school, etc. Innovation is necessary to stand out, to be identified and distinguished from the rest. This is the way commercial brands operate, and is the way NGOs are supposed to work. Traditional marketing has evolved to be adapted to a situation where consumers have developed “antibodies” against advertising tools (Aguado and García, 2009), and they now let the consumers the be the ones to propagate the ideas. And this effort of adaptation is what also must be done in social marketing. NGOs have a great deal of work ahead, and they need to “learn” to reach their audiences. Most of the existing channels do not imply major costs for the organizations; however, their effectiveness can be strengthened exponentially. In addition, NGOs have the advantage of being “suspects” in the eyes of users against what happens to commercial brands. Communication needs to be strategic or will have major problems to be truly effective. This implies thinking in the long term with specific objectives and developing courses of action to ensure the visibility of the organizations in the media through marketing and corporate communications. Larranda Ureta (2008) points out, referring to the shocking news, that despite a piece of information can be attractive, it looses the public’s interest when it reaches the “media ostracism”. If this happens with the big news arriving gently to the media, and then disappear with the same speed, we can imagine the efforts a local NGO must do to achieve the notoriety that is necessary to achieve its goals. This also implies the use all possible media. It is possible that what NGOs have to do is “learning” to exploit the full potential offered by new media because they are experiencing profound changes in the field of media content, changes that affect not only social relations but also the relations that are developed between consumers and brands (Martínez García, 2009). 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